An Overview of Bacterial Respiratory Tract Infections and their Etiologies
Abstract
Background: Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are considered as one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality, worldwide. A wide variety of bacteria and viruses are responsible for the development of RTIs. Considering the importance of respiratory tract infections, this study aimed to provide an overview of the most important respiratory tract infections and inflammations of bacterial origin and their etiologies.
Results: A literature review was conducted to find original studies associated with respiratory infections. Articles that provided evidence on respiratory tract infections as well as their clinical manifestations and etiologies were included in this research.
Conclusion: Considering the importance and economic burden of respiratory tract infections as well as their diversity and widespread prevalence in different communities, it is necessary to implement preventive measures at the national level to control and deal with respiratory diseases with high prevalence in all age groups, in addition to observing the principles of health and hygiene.
1. Richter J, Panayiotou C, Tryfonos C, et al. Aetiology of acute respiratory tract infections in hospitalized children in Cyprus. PloS One 2016; 11(1):e0147041.
2. Patwa A, Shah A. Anatomy and physiology of respiratory system relevant to anaesthesia. Indian J Anaesth 2015; 59(9):533-41.
3. Thomas M, Bomar PA. Upper respiratory tract infections. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
4. Wenzel RP, Fowler AA. Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis. N Engl J Med 2006; 355(20):2125-30.
5. Johny NM, Reji S, Saijan S, et al;. Assessment of antibiotic sensitivity pattern in RTI patients in a secondary care hospital. J Pharm Innov 2020; 1(1):41-7.
6. Hoare Z, Lim WS. Pneumonia: Update on diagnosis and management. BMJ 2006; 332(7549):1077-9.
7. Malani PN. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases. JAMA 2010; 304(18):2067-71.
8. Mustafa MI, Al-Marzooq F, How SH, et al. The use of multiplex real-time PCR improves the detection of the bacterial etiology of community acquired pneumonia. Trop Biomed 2011; 28(3):531-44.
9. Kais M, Spindler C, Kalin M, et al. Quantitative detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis in lower respiratory tract samples by real-time PCR. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2006; 55(3):169-78.
10. Mohd Ali M, Foo P, Hassan M, et al. Development and validation of TaqMan real-time PCR for the detection of Burkholderia pseudomallei isolates from Malaysia. Trop Biomed 2019; 36(2):379-89.
11. Johansson N, Kalin M, Tiveljung-Lindell A, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia: Increased microbiological yield with new diagnostic methods. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 50(2):202-9.
12. World Health Organization. Disease and injury regional mortality estimates, 2000–2012: Global summary estimates. World Health Organization; 2012.
13. Dadonaite B, Roser M. Pneumonia. Our world in data; 2018.
14. National Clinical Guideline Centre (UK). Pneumonia: Diagnosis and management of community- and hospital-acquired pneumonia in adults. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK); 2014.
15. Fil Jr TM, Marrie TJ. Burden of community-acquired pneumonia in North American adults. Postgrad Med 2010; 122(2):130-41.
16. Niederman MS. Hospital-acquired pneumonia, health care-associated pneumonia, ventilator-associated pneumonia, and ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis: Definitions and challenges in trial design. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51(Suppl-1):S12-7.
17. Hanumantha S, Patil DS. Incidence, bacterial profile, and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of ventilator associated pneumonia in Andhra Pradesh, India. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci. 2019; 8(10):2058-65.
18. Di Bonito M, Caiazzo S, Iannazzone M, et al. Prognostic differences between VAP from Acinetobacter baumanii and VAP from other microorganisms. Transl Med UniSa 2012; 3:15-21.
19. Rosenthal VD, Maki DG, Salomao R, et al. Device-associated nosocomial infections in 55 intensive care units of 8 developing countries. Ann Intern Med 2006; 145(8):582-91.
20. Galván JM, Rajas O, Aspa J. Review of non-bacterial infections in respiratory medicine: Viral pneumonia. Arch Bronconeumol 2015; 51(11):590–7.
21. Rohde GG. The role of viruses in CAP. Community-acquired pneumonia. Eur Respir Monogr 2014; 63:74-87.
22. Pozzi E, Oliva A. Oral cephalosporins: Clinical results in lower respiratory tract infections. Oral Cephalosporins 1995;47:123-44.
23. World Health Organization. The top 10 causes of death. World Health Organization; 2020.
24. Feldman C, Shaddock E. Epidemiology of lower respiratory tract infections in adults. Expert Rev Respir Med 2019; 13(1):63-77.
25. Finch RG. The role of new quinolones in the treatment of respiratory tract infections. Drugs 1995; 49(2):144-51.
26. Mackenzie G. The definition and classification of pneumonia. Pneumonia 2016; 8(1):1-5.
27. Bartlett JG, Mundy LM. Community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1995; 333(24):1618-24.
28. Tikhomirova A, Kidd SP. Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae: Living together in a biofilm. Pathog Dis 2013; 69(2):114-26.
29. World Health Organization. Global health estimates 2016: Deaths by cause, age, sex, by country and by region, 2000–2016. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018.
30. Dasaraju PV, Liu C. Infections of the respiratory system. In: Baron S, editor. Medical Microbiology. 4th ed. Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston; 1996. Chapter 93.
31. Rotstein C, Evans G, Born A, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2008; 19(1):19-53.
32. Dion CF, Ashurst JV. Streptococcus pneumoniae. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
33. Musher DM, Jesudasen SJ, Barwatt JW, et al. Normal respiratory flora as a cause of community-acquired pneumonia. In: Open forum infectious diseases. US: Oxford University Press; 2020 (Vol. 7, No. 9, p. ofaa307).
34. Slack MP. A review of the role of Haemophilus influenzae in community-acquired pneumonia. Pneumonia 2015;6:26-43.
35. Ashurst JV, Dawson A. Klebsiella pneumoniae. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
36. Banuls AL, Sanou A, Van Anh NT, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Ecology and evolution of a human bacterium. J Med Microbiol 2015; 64(11):1261-9.
37. Lynch III JP, Clark NM. Pneumonia: Atypical. In: Laurent GJ, Shapiro SD, editors. Encyclopedia of Respiratory Medicine. ScienceDirect; 2006, pp. 410-7.
38. Gautam J, Krawiec C. Chlamydia pneumonia. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
39. Tsai TF, Finn DR, Plikaytis BD, et al. Legionnaires' disease: Clinical features of the epidemic in Philadelphia. Ann Intern Med 1979; 90(4):509-17.
40. Cassell K, Davis JL, Berkelman R. Legionnaires’ disease in the time of COVID-19. Pneumonia 2021; 13(1):1-3.
41. Sadikot RT, Blackwell TS, Christman JW, et al. Pathogen–host interactions in Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171(11):1209-23.
42. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Klebsiella pneumoniae in healthcare settings. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2019.
43. Kerr KG, Snelling AM. Pseudomonas aeruginosa: A formidable and ever-present adversary. J Hosp Infect 2009; 73(4):338-44.
44. Paulson T. Epidemiology: A mortal foe. Nature 2013; 502(7470):S2–3.
45. Fry NK, Campbell H, Amirthalingam G. JMM Profile: Bordetella pertussis and whooping cough (pertussis): Still a significant cause of infant morbidity and mortality, but vaccine-preventable. J Med Microbiol 2021; 70(10):001442.
46. Wessels MR. Streptococcal pharyngitis. N Engl J Med 2011; 364(7):648-55.
47. Schilder AG, Chonmaitree T, Cripps AW, et al. Otitis media. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2016; 2(1):1-8.
48. JB A, MR J, Poole MD. Sinus and Allergy Health Partnership. Antimicrobial treatment guidelines for acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2004; 130(Suppl-1):1-45.
49. Scheid DC, Hamm RM. Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis in adults: Part I. Evaluation. Am Fam Physician 2004; 70(9):1685-92.
50. Hadfield TL, McEvoy P, Polotsky Y, et al. The pathology of diphtheria. J Infect Dis 2000;181(Suppl-1):S116-20.
51. Vitek CR, Wharton M. Diphtheria toxoid. In: Plotkin S, Orenstein W, Offic P, editors. Vaccines. Amsterdam: Elsevier Inc.; 2008, pp. 139–56.
52. Alcaide ML, Bisno AL. Pharyngitis and epiglottitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2007; 21(2):449-69.
53. Wood JM, Athanasiadis T, Allen J. Laryngitis. Brit Med J 2014; 349:g5827.
54. Toltzis P. Croup syndromes: Laryngotracheitis, epiglottitis, and bacterial tracheitis. In: Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases. Saunders WB; 1998 (Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 138-145).
55. Incze M, Grady D, Gupta A. I have a cold—what do I need to know? JAMA Intern Med 2018; 178(9):1288.
56. Tovar Padua LJ, Cherry JD. Croup (laryngitis, laryngotracheitis, spasmodic croup, laryngotracheobronchitis, bacterial tracheitis, and laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis) and epiglottitis (supraglottitis). In: Cherry JD, Harrison GJ, Kaplan SL, Steinbach WJ, Hotez PJ, editors. Feigin and Cherry’s Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2019, pp. 175-90.
57. Decker MD, Edwards KM. Pertussis (whooping cough). J Infect Dis 2021; 224(Suppl-2):S310-20.
58. Patel ZM, Hwang PH. Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. In: Durand ML, Deschler DG, editors. Infections of the ears, nose, throat, and sinuses. Springer; 2018, pp. 133-43.
2. Patwa A, Shah A. Anatomy and physiology of respiratory system relevant to anaesthesia. Indian J Anaesth 2015; 59(9):533-41.
3. Thomas M, Bomar PA. Upper respiratory tract infections. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
4. Wenzel RP, Fowler AA. Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis. N Engl J Med 2006; 355(20):2125-30.
5. Johny NM, Reji S, Saijan S, et al;. Assessment of antibiotic sensitivity pattern in RTI patients in a secondary care hospital. J Pharm Innov 2020; 1(1):41-7.
6. Hoare Z, Lim WS. Pneumonia: Update on diagnosis and management. BMJ 2006; 332(7549):1077-9.
7. Malani PN. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases. JAMA 2010; 304(18):2067-71.
8. Mustafa MI, Al-Marzooq F, How SH, et al. The use of multiplex real-time PCR improves the detection of the bacterial etiology of community acquired pneumonia. Trop Biomed 2011; 28(3):531-44.
9. Kais M, Spindler C, Kalin M, et al. Quantitative detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis in lower respiratory tract samples by real-time PCR. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2006; 55(3):169-78.
10. Mohd Ali M, Foo P, Hassan M, et al. Development and validation of TaqMan real-time PCR for the detection of Burkholderia pseudomallei isolates from Malaysia. Trop Biomed 2019; 36(2):379-89.
11. Johansson N, Kalin M, Tiveljung-Lindell A, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia: Increased microbiological yield with new diagnostic methods. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 50(2):202-9.
12. World Health Organization. Disease and injury regional mortality estimates, 2000–2012: Global summary estimates. World Health Organization; 2012.
13. Dadonaite B, Roser M. Pneumonia. Our world in data; 2018.
14. National Clinical Guideline Centre (UK). Pneumonia: Diagnosis and management of community- and hospital-acquired pneumonia in adults. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK); 2014.
15. Fil Jr TM, Marrie TJ. Burden of community-acquired pneumonia in North American adults. Postgrad Med 2010; 122(2):130-41.
16. Niederman MS. Hospital-acquired pneumonia, health care-associated pneumonia, ventilator-associated pneumonia, and ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis: Definitions and challenges in trial design. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51(Suppl-1):S12-7.
17. Hanumantha S, Patil DS. Incidence, bacterial profile, and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of ventilator associated pneumonia in Andhra Pradesh, India. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci. 2019; 8(10):2058-65.
18. Di Bonito M, Caiazzo S, Iannazzone M, et al. Prognostic differences between VAP from Acinetobacter baumanii and VAP from other microorganisms. Transl Med UniSa 2012; 3:15-21.
19. Rosenthal VD, Maki DG, Salomao R, et al. Device-associated nosocomial infections in 55 intensive care units of 8 developing countries. Ann Intern Med 2006; 145(8):582-91.
20. Galván JM, Rajas O, Aspa J. Review of non-bacterial infections in respiratory medicine: Viral pneumonia. Arch Bronconeumol 2015; 51(11):590–7.
21. Rohde GG. The role of viruses in CAP. Community-acquired pneumonia. Eur Respir Monogr 2014; 63:74-87.
22. Pozzi E, Oliva A. Oral cephalosporins: Clinical results in lower respiratory tract infections. Oral Cephalosporins 1995;47:123-44.
23. World Health Organization. The top 10 causes of death. World Health Organization; 2020.
24. Feldman C, Shaddock E. Epidemiology of lower respiratory tract infections in adults. Expert Rev Respir Med 2019; 13(1):63-77.
25. Finch RG. The role of new quinolones in the treatment of respiratory tract infections. Drugs 1995; 49(2):144-51.
26. Mackenzie G. The definition and classification of pneumonia. Pneumonia 2016; 8(1):1-5.
27. Bartlett JG, Mundy LM. Community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1995; 333(24):1618-24.
28. Tikhomirova A, Kidd SP. Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae: Living together in a biofilm. Pathog Dis 2013; 69(2):114-26.
29. World Health Organization. Global health estimates 2016: Deaths by cause, age, sex, by country and by region, 2000–2016. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018.
30. Dasaraju PV, Liu C. Infections of the respiratory system. In: Baron S, editor. Medical Microbiology. 4th ed. Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston; 1996. Chapter 93.
31. Rotstein C, Evans G, Born A, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2008; 19(1):19-53.
32. Dion CF, Ashurst JV. Streptococcus pneumoniae. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
33. Musher DM, Jesudasen SJ, Barwatt JW, et al. Normal respiratory flora as a cause of community-acquired pneumonia. In: Open forum infectious diseases. US: Oxford University Press; 2020 (Vol. 7, No. 9, p. ofaa307).
34. Slack MP. A review of the role of Haemophilus influenzae in community-acquired pneumonia. Pneumonia 2015;6:26-43.
35. Ashurst JV, Dawson A. Klebsiella pneumoniae. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
36. Banuls AL, Sanou A, Van Anh NT, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Ecology and evolution of a human bacterium. J Med Microbiol 2015; 64(11):1261-9.
37. Lynch III JP, Clark NM. Pneumonia: Atypical. In: Laurent GJ, Shapiro SD, editors. Encyclopedia of Respiratory Medicine. ScienceDirect; 2006, pp. 410-7.
38. Gautam J, Krawiec C. Chlamydia pneumonia. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
39. Tsai TF, Finn DR, Plikaytis BD, et al. Legionnaires' disease: Clinical features of the epidemic in Philadelphia. Ann Intern Med 1979; 90(4):509-17.
40. Cassell K, Davis JL, Berkelman R. Legionnaires’ disease in the time of COVID-19. Pneumonia 2021; 13(1):1-3.
41. Sadikot RT, Blackwell TS, Christman JW, et al. Pathogen–host interactions in Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171(11):1209-23.
42. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Klebsiella pneumoniae in healthcare settings. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2019.
43. Kerr KG, Snelling AM. Pseudomonas aeruginosa: A formidable and ever-present adversary. J Hosp Infect 2009; 73(4):338-44.
44. Paulson T. Epidemiology: A mortal foe. Nature 2013; 502(7470):S2–3.
45. Fry NK, Campbell H, Amirthalingam G. JMM Profile: Bordetella pertussis and whooping cough (pertussis): Still a significant cause of infant morbidity and mortality, but vaccine-preventable. J Med Microbiol 2021; 70(10):001442.
46. Wessels MR. Streptococcal pharyngitis. N Engl J Med 2011; 364(7):648-55.
47. Schilder AG, Chonmaitree T, Cripps AW, et al. Otitis media. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2016; 2(1):1-8.
48. JB A, MR J, Poole MD. Sinus and Allergy Health Partnership. Antimicrobial treatment guidelines for acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2004; 130(Suppl-1):1-45.
49. Scheid DC, Hamm RM. Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis in adults: Part I. Evaluation. Am Fam Physician 2004; 70(9):1685-92.
50. Hadfield TL, McEvoy P, Polotsky Y, et al. The pathology of diphtheria. J Infect Dis 2000;181(Suppl-1):S116-20.
51. Vitek CR, Wharton M. Diphtheria toxoid. In: Plotkin S, Orenstein W, Offic P, editors. Vaccines. Amsterdam: Elsevier Inc.; 2008, pp. 139–56.
52. Alcaide ML, Bisno AL. Pharyngitis and epiglottitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2007; 21(2):449-69.
53. Wood JM, Athanasiadis T, Allen J. Laryngitis. Brit Med J 2014; 349:g5827.
54. Toltzis P. Croup syndromes: Laryngotracheitis, epiglottitis, and bacterial tracheitis. In: Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases. Saunders WB; 1998 (Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 138-145).
55. Incze M, Grady D, Gupta A. I have a cold—what do I need to know? JAMA Intern Med 2018; 178(9):1288.
56. Tovar Padua LJ, Cherry JD. Croup (laryngitis, laryngotracheitis, spasmodic croup, laryngotracheobronchitis, bacterial tracheitis, and laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis) and epiglottitis (supraglottitis). In: Cherry JD, Harrison GJ, Kaplan SL, Steinbach WJ, Hotez PJ, editors. Feigin and Cherry’s Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2019, pp. 175-90.
57. Decker MD, Edwards KM. Pertussis (whooping cough). J Infect Dis 2021; 224(Suppl-2):S310-20.
58. Patel ZM, Hwang PH. Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. In: Durand ML, Deschler DG, editors. Infections of the ears, nose, throat, and sinuses. Springer; 2018, pp. 133-43.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 11 No 1-2 (2023) | |
| Section | Review Articles | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/jmb.v11i1-2.14373 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Respiratory infection URTIs LRTIs Pneumonia Clinical manifestation Etiology. | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Derakhshan-Nezhad E. An Overview of Bacterial Respiratory Tract Infections and their Etiologies. J Med Bacteriol. 2023;11(1-2):36-46.
