An Overview of Viral Respiratory Infections
Abstract
Background: Various viruses and bacteria are involved in the incidence of respiratory tract infections (RTIs), and viruses account for the majority of RTIs. Given the high economic and therapeutic burden of RTIs, the current review aimed to present a brief but comprehensive overview of the most important viral etiologies of RTIs along with their complications, manifestations, and transmission routes. A comprehensive literature search was performed in electronic databases including Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science to find articles related to the scope of this research, published in English. Eligible studies providing evidence on viral respiratory tract infections, their clinical complications, symptoms, and causes were included in this review.
Conclusion: Considering the diversity and prevalence of viral RTIs and the economic and therapeutic burden imposed on health systems, it is necessary to raise public awareness about their transmission methods and preventive measures to control and manage these infections.
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2. Zhang S, Akmar LZ, Bailey F, et al. Cost of respiratory syncytial virus-associated acute lower respiratory infection management in young children at the regional and global level: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect Dis 2020; 222(Suppl 7):S680-7.
3. Pavia AT. Viral infections of the lower respiratory tract: Old viruses, new viruses, and the role of diagnosis. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52 (Suppl 4):S284-9.
4. Lafond KE, Nair H, Rasooly MH, et al. Global role and burden of influenza in pediatric respiratory hospitalizations, 1982-2012: A systematic analysis. PLoS Med 2016; 13(3): e1001977.
5. Ruuskanen O, Lahti E, Jennings LC, et al. Viral pneumonia. Lancet 2011; 377(9773):1264-75.
6. Su S, Wong G, Shi W, et al. Epidemiology, genetic recombination, and pathogenesis of coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol 2016; 24(6): 490-502.
7. Zolfaghari Emameh R, Nosrati H, Taheri RA. Combination of biodata mining and computational modelling in identification and characterization of ORF1ab polyprotein of SARS-CoV-2 isolated from oronasopharynx of an Iranian patient. Biol Proced Online 2020; 22: 1-8.
8. Liu DX, Liang JQ, Fung TS, 2021. Human coronavirus-229E,-OC43,-NL63, and-HKU1 (Coronaviridae). In: Bamford, D.H., Zuckerman, M. (Eds), Encyclopedia of virology. 4th ed. Elsevier, pp. 428-40.
9. Boncristiani HF, Criado MF, Arruda E, 2009. Respiratory viruses. In: Schaechter, M. (Ed), Encyclopedia of microbiology. Elsevier, pp. 500-518.
10. Hendley JO, Fishburne HB, Gwaltney JM. Coronavirus infections in working adults: Eight-year study with 229E and OC43. Am Rev Respir Dis 1972; 105(5):805-11.
11. Esper F, Weibel C, Ferguson D. Evidence of a novel human coronavirus that is associated with respiratory tract disease in infants and young children. J Infect Dis 2005; 191(4):492-8.
12. Lam CW, Chan MH, Wong CK. Severe acute respiratory syndrome: Clinical and laboratory manifestations. Clin Biochem Rev 2004; 25(2): 121-32.
13. Chan JF, Lau SK, To KK, et al. Middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus: another zoonotic betacoronavirus causing SARS-like disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2015; 28(2):465-522.
14. Baharoon S, Memish ZA. MERS-CoV as an emerging respiratory illness: A review of prevention methods. Travel Med Infect Dis 2019; 32:101520.
15. Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020; 323(11):1061-9.
16. Zumla A, Hui DS, Azhar EI, et al. Reducing mortality from 2019-nCoV: Host-directed therapies should be an option. Lancet 2020; 395 (10224):e35-6.
17. Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: Summary of a report of 72 314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA 2020; 323(13):1239-42.
18. Piedra PA, Englund JA, Glezen WP, 2002. Respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza viruses. In: Richman, D.D., Whitley, R.J., Hayden, F.G. (Eds), Clinical virology. ASM Press, Washington, p. 763.
19. Nam HH, Ison MG. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in adults. BMJ 2019; 366:l5021.
20. van den Hoogen BG, Bestebroer TM, Osterhaus AD, et al. Analysis of the genomic sequence of a human metapneumovirus. Virology 2002; 295(1):119-32.
21. Boivin G, Abed Y, Pelletier G. Virological features and clinical manifestations associated with human metapneumovirus: A new paramyxovirus responsible for acute respiratory infections in all age groups. J Infect Dis 2002; 186(9):1330-4.
22. Semple MG, Cowell A, Dove W. Dual infection of infants by human metapneumovirus and human respiratory syncytial virus is strongly associated with severe bronchiolitis. J Infect Dis 2005; 191(3):382-6.
23. Williams JV, Harris PA, Tollefson SJ. Human metapneumovirus and lower respiratory tract disease in otherwise healthy infants and children. N Engl J Med 2004; 350(5):443-50.
24. Mejias A, Chavez-Bueno S, Ramilo O. Human metapneumovirus: A not so new virus. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23(1):1-7.
25. Long JS, Mistry B, Haslam SM, et al. Host and viral determinants of influenza A virus species specificity. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019; 17(2):67-81.
26. Zhai SL, Zhang H, Chen SN, et al. Influenza D virus in animal species in Guangdong province, southern China. Emerg Infect Dis 2017; 23(8): 1392-6.
27. Kim JH, Cho CH, Shin JH, et al. Highly sensitive and label-free detection of influenza H5N1 viral proteins using affinity peptide and porous BSA/MXene nanocomposite electrode. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1251:341018
28. Hayden FG, Palese P, 2002. Influenza virus. In: Richman, D.D., Whitley, R.J., Hayden, F.G. (Eds), Clinical virology. ASM Press, Washington, p. 891.
29. Henrikson KJ. Parainfluenza viruses. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003; 16(2):242-64.
30. Elizaga J, Olavarria E, Apperley JF. Parainfluenza virus 3 infection after stem cell transplant: Relevance to outcome of rapid diagnosis and ribavirin treatment. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32(3):413-8.
31. Gbadero DA, Johnson ABR, Aderele WI. Microbial inciters of acute asthma in urban Nigerian children. Thorax 1995; 50(7):739-45.
32. Psarras S, Papadopoulos NG, Johnston SL. Pathogenesis of respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis-related wheezing. Pediatr Respir Rev 2004; 5(Suppl A):S179-84.
33. Arnold A, MacMahon E. Adenovirus infections. Medicine 2017; 45(12):777-80.
34. Kampf G. Efficacy of ethanol in hand hygiene against adenoviruses. Am J Infect Control 2016; 44(11):1429.
35. Rhee Elizabeth G, Barouch Dan H, 2015. Adenoviruses. In: Bennett, J.E., Dolin, R., Blaser, M.J. (Eds), Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. 8th ed. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
36. Lynch III JP, Kajon AE. Adenovirus: Epidemiology, global spread of novel serotypes, and advances in treatment and prevention. Semin Resp Crit Care Med 2016; 37 (4): 586-602.
37. Simmonds P, Gorbalenya AE, Harvala H, et al. Recommendations for the nomenclature of enteroviruses and rhinoviruses. Arch Virol 2020; 165:793-7.
38. Giardina FA, Piralla A, Ferrari G, et al. Molecular epidemiology of rhinovirus/enterovirus and their role on cause severe and prolonged infection in hospitalized patients. Microorganisms 2022; 10(4):755.
39. Zhao Y, Shen J, Wu B, et al. Genotypic diversity and epidemiology of human rhinovirus among children with severe acute respiratory tract infection in Shanghai, 2013–2015. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1836.
40. Ljubin-Sternak S, Meštrović T, Ivković-Jureković I, et al. The emerging role of rhinoviruses in lower respiratory tract infections in children—Clinical and molecular epidemiological study from Croatia, 2017-2019. Front Microbiol 2019; 10: 2737.
41. Gern JE. The ABCs of rhinoviruses, wheezing, and asthma. J Virol 2010; 84(15):7418-26.
42. Sinclair W, Omar M, 2024. Enterovirus. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island (FL).
43. Connolly SA, Jardetzky TS, Longnecker R. The structural basis of herpesvirus entry. Nat Rev Microbiol 2021; 19(2):110-21.
44. Mocarsk ES, Shenk T, Griffiths PD, Pass RF, 2013. Cytomegaloviruses. In: Knipe, D.M., Howley, P.M. (Eds), Fields virology. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp. 1960–2014.
45. Britt W, 2008. Manifestations of human cytomegalovirus infection: Proposed mechanisms of acute and chronic disease. In: Stinksi, M.F., Shenk, T. (Eds), Human cytomegaloviruses. Springer, Berlin, pp. 417–470.
46. Bravender T. Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, and infectious mononucleosis. Adolesc Med State Art Rev 2010; 21(2):251-64.
47. Hraiech S, Azoulay E, Papazian L, 2021. Herpesviruses in critically ill patients with ARDS. In: Janes, S.M. (Ed), Encyclopedia of respiratory medicine. Elsevier, pp. 373–85.
48. Tuxen DV, Cade JF, McDonald MI, et al. Herpes simplex virus from the lower respiratory tract in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126(3):416-9.
49. Zhu S, Viejo-Borbolla A. Pathogenesis and virulence of herpes simplex virus. Virulence 2021; 12(1):2670-702.
50. Mirouse A, Vignon P, Piron P, et al. Severe varicella-zoster virus pneumonia: A multicenter cohort study. Crit Care 2017; 21:1-10.
51. Niazi MR, Iqbal QZ, Mishiyev D, et al. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) induced pneumonitis in an immunocompetent adult: A case report. Respir Med Case Rep 2020; 31:101262.
2. Zhang S, Akmar LZ, Bailey F, et al. Cost of respiratory syncytial virus-associated acute lower respiratory infection management in young children at the regional and global level: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect Dis 2020; 222(Suppl 7):S680-7.
3. Pavia AT. Viral infections of the lower respiratory tract: Old viruses, new viruses, and the role of diagnosis. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52 (Suppl 4):S284-9.
4. Lafond KE, Nair H, Rasooly MH, et al. Global role and burden of influenza in pediatric respiratory hospitalizations, 1982-2012: A systematic analysis. PLoS Med 2016; 13(3): e1001977.
5. Ruuskanen O, Lahti E, Jennings LC, et al. Viral pneumonia. Lancet 2011; 377(9773):1264-75.
6. Su S, Wong G, Shi W, et al. Epidemiology, genetic recombination, and pathogenesis of coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol 2016; 24(6): 490-502.
7. Zolfaghari Emameh R, Nosrati H, Taheri RA. Combination of biodata mining and computational modelling in identification and characterization of ORF1ab polyprotein of SARS-CoV-2 isolated from oronasopharynx of an Iranian patient. Biol Proced Online 2020; 22: 1-8.
8. Liu DX, Liang JQ, Fung TS, 2021. Human coronavirus-229E,-OC43,-NL63, and-HKU1 (Coronaviridae). In: Bamford, D.H., Zuckerman, M. (Eds), Encyclopedia of virology. 4th ed. Elsevier, pp. 428-40.
9. Boncristiani HF, Criado MF, Arruda E, 2009. Respiratory viruses. In: Schaechter, M. (Ed), Encyclopedia of microbiology. Elsevier, pp. 500-518.
10. Hendley JO, Fishburne HB, Gwaltney JM. Coronavirus infections in working adults: Eight-year study with 229E and OC43. Am Rev Respir Dis 1972; 105(5):805-11.
11. Esper F, Weibel C, Ferguson D. Evidence of a novel human coronavirus that is associated with respiratory tract disease in infants and young children. J Infect Dis 2005; 191(4):492-8.
12. Lam CW, Chan MH, Wong CK. Severe acute respiratory syndrome: Clinical and laboratory manifestations. Clin Biochem Rev 2004; 25(2): 121-32.
13. Chan JF, Lau SK, To KK, et al. Middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus: another zoonotic betacoronavirus causing SARS-like disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2015; 28(2):465-522.
14. Baharoon S, Memish ZA. MERS-CoV as an emerging respiratory illness: A review of prevention methods. Travel Med Infect Dis 2019; 32:101520.
15. Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020; 323(11):1061-9.
16. Zumla A, Hui DS, Azhar EI, et al. Reducing mortality from 2019-nCoV: Host-directed therapies should be an option. Lancet 2020; 395 (10224):e35-6.
17. Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: Summary of a report of 72 314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA 2020; 323(13):1239-42.
18. Piedra PA, Englund JA, Glezen WP, 2002. Respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza viruses. In: Richman, D.D., Whitley, R.J., Hayden, F.G. (Eds), Clinical virology. ASM Press, Washington, p. 763.
19. Nam HH, Ison MG. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in adults. BMJ 2019; 366:l5021.
20. van den Hoogen BG, Bestebroer TM, Osterhaus AD, et al. Analysis of the genomic sequence of a human metapneumovirus. Virology 2002; 295(1):119-32.
21. Boivin G, Abed Y, Pelletier G. Virological features and clinical manifestations associated with human metapneumovirus: A new paramyxovirus responsible for acute respiratory infections in all age groups. J Infect Dis 2002; 186(9):1330-4.
22. Semple MG, Cowell A, Dove W. Dual infection of infants by human metapneumovirus and human respiratory syncytial virus is strongly associated with severe bronchiolitis. J Infect Dis 2005; 191(3):382-6.
23. Williams JV, Harris PA, Tollefson SJ. Human metapneumovirus and lower respiratory tract disease in otherwise healthy infants and children. N Engl J Med 2004; 350(5):443-50.
24. Mejias A, Chavez-Bueno S, Ramilo O. Human metapneumovirus: A not so new virus. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23(1):1-7.
25. Long JS, Mistry B, Haslam SM, et al. Host and viral determinants of influenza A virus species specificity. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019; 17(2):67-81.
26. Zhai SL, Zhang H, Chen SN, et al. Influenza D virus in animal species in Guangdong province, southern China. Emerg Infect Dis 2017; 23(8): 1392-6.
27. Kim JH, Cho CH, Shin JH, et al. Highly sensitive and label-free detection of influenza H5N1 viral proteins using affinity peptide and porous BSA/MXene nanocomposite electrode. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1251:341018
28. Hayden FG, Palese P, 2002. Influenza virus. In: Richman, D.D., Whitley, R.J., Hayden, F.G. (Eds), Clinical virology. ASM Press, Washington, p. 891.
29. Henrikson KJ. Parainfluenza viruses. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003; 16(2):242-64.
30. Elizaga J, Olavarria E, Apperley JF. Parainfluenza virus 3 infection after stem cell transplant: Relevance to outcome of rapid diagnosis and ribavirin treatment. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32(3):413-8.
31. Gbadero DA, Johnson ABR, Aderele WI. Microbial inciters of acute asthma in urban Nigerian children. Thorax 1995; 50(7):739-45.
32. Psarras S, Papadopoulos NG, Johnston SL. Pathogenesis of respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis-related wheezing. Pediatr Respir Rev 2004; 5(Suppl A):S179-84.
33. Arnold A, MacMahon E. Adenovirus infections. Medicine 2017; 45(12):777-80.
34. Kampf G. Efficacy of ethanol in hand hygiene against adenoviruses. Am J Infect Control 2016; 44(11):1429.
35. Rhee Elizabeth G, Barouch Dan H, 2015. Adenoviruses. In: Bennett, J.E., Dolin, R., Blaser, M.J. (Eds), Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. 8th ed. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
36. Lynch III JP, Kajon AE. Adenovirus: Epidemiology, global spread of novel serotypes, and advances in treatment and prevention. Semin Resp Crit Care Med 2016; 37 (4): 586-602.
37. Simmonds P, Gorbalenya AE, Harvala H, et al. Recommendations for the nomenclature of enteroviruses and rhinoviruses. Arch Virol 2020; 165:793-7.
38. Giardina FA, Piralla A, Ferrari G, et al. Molecular epidemiology of rhinovirus/enterovirus and their role on cause severe and prolonged infection in hospitalized patients. Microorganisms 2022; 10(4):755.
39. Zhao Y, Shen J, Wu B, et al. Genotypic diversity and epidemiology of human rhinovirus among children with severe acute respiratory tract infection in Shanghai, 2013–2015. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1836.
40. Ljubin-Sternak S, Meštrović T, Ivković-Jureković I, et al. The emerging role of rhinoviruses in lower respiratory tract infections in children—Clinical and molecular epidemiological study from Croatia, 2017-2019. Front Microbiol 2019; 10: 2737.
41. Gern JE. The ABCs of rhinoviruses, wheezing, and asthma. J Virol 2010; 84(15):7418-26.
42. Sinclair W, Omar M, 2024. Enterovirus. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island (FL).
43. Connolly SA, Jardetzky TS, Longnecker R. The structural basis of herpesvirus entry. Nat Rev Microbiol 2021; 19(2):110-21.
44. Mocarsk ES, Shenk T, Griffiths PD, Pass RF, 2013. Cytomegaloviruses. In: Knipe, D.M., Howley, P.M. (Eds), Fields virology. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp. 1960–2014.
45. Britt W, 2008. Manifestations of human cytomegalovirus infection: Proposed mechanisms of acute and chronic disease. In: Stinksi, M.F., Shenk, T. (Eds), Human cytomegaloviruses. Springer, Berlin, pp. 417–470.
46. Bravender T. Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, and infectious mononucleosis. Adolesc Med State Art Rev 2010; 21(2):251-64.
47. Hraiech S, Azoulay E, Papazian L, 2021. Herpesviruses in critically ill patients with ARDS. In: Janes, S.M. (Ed), Encyclopedia of respiratory medicine. Elsevier, pp. 373–85.
48. Tuxen DV, Cade JF, McDonald MI, et al. Herpes simplex virus from the lower respiratory tract in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126(3):416-9.
49. Zhu S, Viejo-Borbolla A. Pathogenesis and virulence of herpes simplex virus. Virulence 2021; 12(1):2670-702.
50. Mirouse A, Vignon P, Piron P, et al. Severe varicella-zoster virus pneumonia: A multicenter cohort study. Crit Care 2017; 21:1-10.
51. Niazi MR, Iqbal QZ, Mishiyev D, et al. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) induced pneumonitis in an immunocompetent adult: A case report. Respir Med Case Rep 2020; 31:101262.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 13 No 1 (2025) | |
| Section | Review Articles | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/jmb.v13i1.18050 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Complication LRTIs Manifestation Transmission URTIs. | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Derakhshan-Nezhad E. An Overview of Viral Respiratory Infections. J Med Bacteriol. 2025;13(1):60-68.
