Immune Responses to Viral Capsids and Bacterial Pathogens: Unraveling Molecular Mechanisms of Vaccine-Induced Immunity
-
Mahdi Bozorgi
,
Pedram Pouyan
,
Ali Mashkani
,
Mahdi Maloomi
,
Fatemeh Gozarnoie
,
Somaieh Nasereslami
,
Zeinab , Mohammadi
,
Javad Fathi
,
Yalda Malekzadegan
,
Amir Jouya Talaei
,
Saina Najafi
,
Mehrshad Fekri
Abstract
Background: Understanding the immune responses to viral capsids and bacterial pathogens is crucial for improving vaccine design and efficacy. This review explores the complex molecular pathways that underlie vaccine-induced immunity, focusing on the interactions between the immune system and different viral and bacterial antigens.
Results: By examining the cellular and humoral immune responses elicited by viral capsids and bacterial pathogens, we highlight key factors that influence vaccine effectiveness, such as antigen presentation, immune memory, and immune evasion mechanisms. Furthermore, we discuss how these molecular interactions can be modulated to enhance vaccine strategies, providing insight into future vaccine development against emerging infectious diseases.
Conclusion: Through a detailed exploration of the molecular dynamics involved, this article aims to deepen our understanding of vaccine-induced immunity and inform the development of more targeted and effective immunotherapies.
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6. Pachori P, Gothalwal R, Gandhi P. Emergence of antibiotic resistance Pseudomonas aeruginosa in intensive care unit; a critical review. Genes Dis 2019; 6(2):109-19.
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9. Nazareth J, Martin CA, Pan D, et al. Immunogenicity of concomitant SARS-CoV-2 and influenza vaccination in UK healthcare workers: a prospective longitudinal observational study. Lancet Reg Health Eur 2024; 44:101022.
10. Aljabali AA, Hassan SS, Pabari RM, et al. The viral capsid as novel nanomaterials for drug delivery. Future Sci OA 2021; 7(9):FSO744.
11. Scutigliani EM, Kikkert M. Interaction of the innate immune system with positive-strand RNA virus replication organelles. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2017; 37:17-27.
12. Li D, Wu M. Pattern recognition receptors in health and diseases. STTT 2021; 6(1):291.
13. Mogensen TH. Pathogen recognition and inflammatory signaling in innate immune defenses. Clin Microbiol Rev 2009; 22(2):240-73.
14. Iwasaki A. A virological view of innate immune recognition. Annu Rev Microbiol 2012; 66:177-96.
15. Brubaker SW, Bonham KS, Zanoni I, et al. Innate immune pattern recognition: a cell biological perspective. Annu Rev Immunol 2015; 33:257-90.
16. Xagorari A, Chlichlia K. Toll-like receptors and viruses: induction of innate antiviral immune responses. Open Microbiol J 2008; 2:49-59.
17. Reikine S, Nguyen JB, Modis Y. Pattern recognition and signaling mechanisms of RIG-I and MDA5. Front. immunol 2014; 23(5):342.
18. Guo Q, Jin Y, Chen X, et al. NF-κB in biology and targeted therapy: new insights and translational implications. STT 2024; 9(1):53.
19. Mihaescu G, Chifiriuc MC, Filip R, et al. Role of interferons in the antiviral battle: from virus-host crosstalk to prophylactic and therapeutic potential in SARS-CoV-2 infection. Front. immunol 2024; 14:1273604.
20. Björkström NK, Strunz B, Ljunggren HG. Natural killer cells in antiviral immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 2022; 22(2):112-23.
21. Ramírez-Labrada A, Pesini C, Santiago L, et al. All about (NK Cell-Mediated) death in two acts and an unexpected encore: initiation, execution and activation of adaptive immunity. Front Immunol 2022; 13:896228.
22. Carty M, Guy C, Bowie AG. Detection of viral infections by innate immunity. Biochem Pharmacol 2021; 183:114316.
23. Martín-Moreno A, Muñoz-Fernández MA. Dendritic cells, the double agent in the war against HIV-1. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2485.
24. Kervevan J, Chakrabarti LA. Role of CD4+ T cells in the control of viral infections: recent advances and open questions. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22(2):523.
25. Yousefpour P, Ni K, Irvine DJ. Targeted modulation of immune cells and tissues using engineered biomaterials. Nat. Rev. Bioeng 2023; 1(2):107-24.
26. Gambadauro A, Galletta F, Li Pomi A, et al. Immune response to respiratory viral infections. Int. J Mol Sci 2024; 25(11):6178.
27. Szabó S, Feier B, Capatina D, et al. An overview of healthcare associated infections and their detection methods caused by pathogen bacteria in Romania and Europe. J Clin Med 2022; 11(11):3204.
28. Reynolds D, Kollef M. The epidemiology and pathogenesis and treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections: an update. Drugs 2021; 81(18):2117-31.
29. Piatek M, O'Beirne C, Beato Z, et al. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus display differential proteomic responses to the Silver(I) compound, SBC3. Antibiotics 2023; 12(2):348.
30. Wang R, Lan C, Benlagha K, et al. The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system. MedComm 2024; 5(10):e714. e714.
31. Yamasaki-Yashiki S, Shiraishi T, Gyobu M, et al. Immunostimulatory activity of lipoteichoic acid with three fatty acid residues derived from Limosilactobacillus antri JCM 15950T. Appl Environ Microbiol 2024; 90(10):e01197-24.
32. Kim HJ, Kim H, Lee JH, et al. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4): new insight immune and aging. Immun Ageing 2023; 20(1):67.
33. Mazgaeen L, Gurung P. Recent advances in lipopolysaccharide recognition systems. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21(2):379.
34. Chen Y, Ye X, Escames G, et al. The NLRP3 inflammasome: contributions to inflammation-related diseases. CMBL 2023; 28(1):51.
35. Pidwill GR, Gibson JF, Cole J, et al. The role of macrophages in Staphylococcus aureus infection. Front Immunol 2021; 11:620339.
36. Alfei S, Schito GC, Schito AM, et al. Reactive oxygen species (ros)-mediated antibacterial oxidative therapies: available methods to generate ros and a novel option proposal. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25(13):7182.
37. Krukonis ES, Thomson JJ. Complement evasion mechanisms of the systemic pathogens Yersiniae and Salmonellae. FEBS lett 2020; 594(16):2598-620.
38. John A, Bhat KA, Kaur A, et al. Cells of the immune system and their multifunctional roles. Role of Medicinal Plants in. 2025: 15.
39. He Y, Mohapatra G, Asokan S, et al. Microbiome modulation of antigen presentation in tolerance and inflammation. Curr Opin. Immunol 2024; 91:102471.
40. Gao Y, Huang D, Huang S, et al. Rational design of ROS generation nanosystems to regulate innate immunity of macrophages, dendrtical and natural killing cells for immunotherapy. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 139:112695.
41. Pereira MV, Galvani RG, Gonçalves-Silva T, et al. Tissue adaptation of CD4 T lymphocytes in homeostasis and cancer. Front. immunol 2024; 15:1379376. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1379376
42. Rakesh P. Activation of T regulatory cells in Type II Immune Responses: UNSW Sydney; 2024.
43. McIntyre A. The role of CD4+ help in promoting CD8+ T cell function following allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation: UCL (University College London); 2024.
44. Zou X, Huo F, Sun L, et al. Peripheral helper T cells in human diseases. J Autoimmun 2024; 145:103218.
45. Sun L, Su Y, Jiao A, et al. T cells in health and disease. STTT 2023; 8(1):235.
46. Barnaba V. T cell memory in infection, cancer, and autoimmunity. Front Immunol 2021; 12:811968.
47. Ghonaim AH, Rouby SR, Nageeb WM, et al. Insights into recent advancements in human and animal rotavirus vaccines: Exploring New Frontiers. Virol Sin 2024; 40(1):1-14.
48. Kidd S. Use of inactivated polio vaccine among US adults: updated recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices—United States, 2023. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2023; 72(49);1327-30.
49. Bandyopadhyay AS, Gast C, Rivera L, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of inactivated poliovirus vaccine schedules for the post-eradication era: a randomised open-label, multicentre, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2021; 21(4):559-68.
50. Moro PL, Zhang B, Ennulat C, et al. Safety of co-administration of mRNA COVID-19 and seasonal inactivated influenza vaccines in the vaccine adverse event reporting system (VAERS) during July 1, 2021–June 30, 2022. Vaccine 2023; 41(11):1859-63.
51. Tang YD, Li Y, Cai XH, et al. Viral live‐attenuated vaccines (LAVs): Past and future directions. Adv Sci 2024;2407241.
52. Soodejani MT, Basti M, Tabatabaei SM, et al. Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine and COVID-19: a systematic review. IJMEG 2021; 12(3):35-9.
53. Schnyder JL, de Jong HK, Bache BE, et al. Long-term immunity following yellow fever vaccination: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Pub Health 2024; 12(3):e445-e456.
54. Huang Q, Zeng J, Yan JC. mRNA vaccines. J Genet Genomics 2021; 48(2):107-14.
55. Dighriri IM, Alhusayni KM, Mobarki AY, et al. Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine (BNT162b2) side effects: a systematic review. Cureus 2022; 14(3):e23526.
56. Meo S, Bukhari I, Akram J, et al. COVID-19 vaccines: comparison of biological, pharmacological characteristics and adverse effects of Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna Vaccines. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2021; 25(3):1663–9.
57. Seeberger PH. Discovery of semi-and fully-synthetic carbohydrate vaccines against bacterial infections using a medicinal chemistry approach: focus review. Chem Rev 2021; 121(7):3598-626.
58. Pattyn J, Hendrickx G, Vorsters A, et al. Hepatitis B vaccines. J Infect Dis 2021; 224:S343-S51.
59. Musher DM, Anderson R, Feldman C. The remarkable history of pneumococcal vaccination: an ongoing challenge. Pneumonia 2022; 14(1):5.
60. Kuijper EJ, Gerding DN. The end of toxoid vaccine development for preventing Clostridioides difficile infections? : OUP; 2024. p. ciae412.
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| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 13 No 3 (2025) | |
| Section | Review Articles | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/jmb.v13i3.19516 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Bacterial Pathogens Immune Responses Molecular Mechanisms Vaccine Viral Capsids. | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Bozorgi M, Pouyan P, Mashkani A, Maloomi M, Gozarnoie F, Nasereslami S, Mohammadi Z , Fathi J, Malekzadegan Y, Jouya Talaei A, Najafi S, Fekri M. Immune Responses to Viral Capsids and Bacterial Pathogens: Unraveling Molecular Mechanisms of Vaccine-Induced Immunity. J Med Bacteriol. 2025;13(3):131-145.
