Nano-Encapsulation of Medicinal Plant Extracts in Iran (2019–2024): Techniques, Antibacterial and Antifungal Applications
Abstract
Background: Medicinal plant extracts are widely recognized for their antimicrobial properties, owing to phytochemicals such as flavonoids, terpenes, alkaloids, and phenolic acids. However, their clinical and industrial application is often limited by low solubility, high volatility, instability, and poor bioavailability. Nanoencapsulation has emerged as a promising strategy to overcome these limitations by enhancing solubility, stability, and controlled delivery of bioactives. This review comprehensively examines nanoencapsulation studies conducted in Iran between 2019 and 2024, focusing on the antibacterial and antifungal efficacy of encapsulated plant extracts.
Results: Five main encapsulation methods are reviewed: liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanoemulsions, polymeric nanoparticles (especially chitosan-based), and mesoporous silica nanoparticles. For each category, the plant extracts used, preparation techniques, physicochemical properties, and antimicrobial outcomes are presented. Overall, nanoencapsulation consistently improved antimicrobial performance. Additionally, encapsulated formulations exhibited improved stability, prolonged release, and in many cases, reduced cytotoxicity. Despite these advances, several internationally recognized techniques remain underutilized in Iranian research. These include dendrimer-based nanocarriers, phytosome systems, protein-based nanoparticles (e.g., zein, gelatin), and metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), all of which have shown promising results elsewhere in enhancing delivery and antimicrobial synergy. Their adoption could broaden the functional potential of Iranian medicinal plants.
Conclusion: This review highlights nanoencapsulation as a transformative tool in enhancing the efficacy of herbal antimicrobials. It also identifies underexplored nano-carriers as strategic opportunities for future research and application in pharmaceutical, food, and agricultural settings.
1. Wu Y, Luo Y, Wang Q. Antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of essential oils encapsulated in zein nanoparticles prepared by liquid–liquid dispersion method. Food Sci Tech 2012; 48(2):283-90.
2. Nasseri M, Golmohammadzadeh S, Arouiee H, et al. Antifungal activity of Zataria multiflora essential oil-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles in-vitro condition. Iran J Basic Med Sci 2016; 19(11):1231-7.
3. Haikal RR, El Salakawy N, Ibrahim A, et al. Synergistic antioxidant and antibacterial effects of a Zn-ascorbate metal–organic framework loaded with marjoram essential oil. Nanoscale Adv 2024; 6(18):4664-71.
4. Fathi F, Ebrahimi SN, Rocha F, et al. Encapsulation of extracts from Middle East medicinal plants and its advantages–a review article. Steroids 2022; 13:15-7.
5. Namdar N, Nayeri Fasaei B, Shariati P, et al. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles co-loaded with lysozyme and vancomycin for synergistic antimicrobial action. Sci Rep 2024; 14(1): 29242.
6. Joghataei S, Nikaein D, Arshadi Nezhad G, et al. Impact of nano-pomegranate seed oil on the expression of TLR2 and TLR4 genes in A549 cells sensitized with Alternaria alternata cellular extract. J Med Bacteriol 2024; 12(4):17-30.
7. Maryam I, Huzaifa U, Hindatu H, et al. Nanoencapsulation of essential oils with enhanced antimicrobial activity: A new way of combating antimicrobial resistance. J Pharm Phytochem 2015; 4(3):165.
8. Khazdair MR, Anaeigoudari A, Hashemzehi M, et al. Neuroprotective potency of some spice herbs, a literature review. J Trad Compl Med 2019; 9(2):98-105.
9. Rijo P, Falé PL, Serralheiro ML, et al. Optimization of medicinal plant extraction methods and their encapsulation through extrusion technology. Measurement 2014; 58: 249-55.
10. Vinceković M, Viskić M, Jurić S, et al. Innovative technologies for encapsulation of Mediterranean plants extracts. Trends Food Sci Tech 2017; 69:1-12.
11. Ebadi P, Azizkhani M. Evaluation of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of Carum copticum L. essential oil encapsulated in electrospun cellulose acetate nanofibers. J Essential Oil Res 2023; 35(6):579-88.
12. Hosseini SM, Tavakolipour H, Mokhtarian M, et al. Co‐encapsulation of Shirazi thyme (Zataria multiflora) essential oil and nisin using caffeic acid grafted chitosan nanogel and the effect of this nanogel as a bio‐preservative in Iranian white cheese. Food Sci Nutr 2024; 12(6):4385-98.
13. Armendáriz-Barragán B, Zafar N, Badri W, et al. Plant extracts: from encapsulation to application. Expert Opin Drug Delivery 2016; 13(8):1165-75.
14. Najafi MN, Arianmehr A, Sani AM. Preparation of barije (Ferula gummosa) essential oil–loaded liposomes and evaluation of physical and antibacterial effect on Escherichia coli O157: H7. J Food Prot 2020; 83(3):511-7.
15. Bahramabadi R, Hakimi H, Saljooqi A, et al. The essential oil of rocket seeds maintains its antibacterial effects after encapsulation in nanoliposomes. J Herbal Med 2024; 47:100924.
16. Bilia AR, Guccione C, Isacchi B, et al. Essential oils loaded in nanosystems: a developing strategy for a successful therapeutic approach. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2014; 2014:651593.
17. Rudzińska M, Grygier A, Knight G, et al. Liposomes as carriers of bioactive compounds in human nutrition. Foods 2024; 13(12):1814.
18. Vakili-Ghartavol M, Arouiee H, Golmohammadzadeh S, et al. Synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antifungal activity of solid lipid nanoparticles containing Mentha piperita L. essential oil. MDRSJRNS 2024; 26(3):667-80.
19. Ghasemiyeh P, Mohammadi-Samani S. Solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers as novel drug delivery systems: applications, advantages and disadvantages. Res Pharm Sci 2018; 13(4):288-303.
20. Karimi N, Ghanbarzadeh B, Hamishehkar H, et al. Antioxidant, antimicrobial and physico-chemical Properties of Turmeric extract-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC). Coll Interf Sci Comm 2018; 22:18-24.
21. Osanloo M, Abdollahi A, Valizadeh A, et al. Antibacterial potential of essential oils of Zataria multiflora and Mentha piperita, micro- and nano-formulated forms. Iran J Microbiol 2020; 12(1):43-51.
22. Rasti F, Ahmadi E, Safari M, et al. Anticancer, antioxidant, and antibacterial effects of nanoemulsion of Origanum majorana essential oil. Iran J Microbiol 2023; 15(4):565-73.
23. Moradi A, Davati N, Emamifar A. Effects of Cuminum cyminum L. essential oil and its nanoemulsion on oxidative stability and microbial growth in mayonnaise during storage. Food Sci Nutr 2023; 11(8):4781-93.
24. Huo YY, Li TT, Yang J, et al. Chemical constituents of the essential oil from Cuminum cyminum L. and its antifungal activity against Panax notoginseng pathogens. Chem Biodivers 2021; 18(12):e2100638.
25. Wongkattiya N, Sanguansermsri P, Fraser IH, et al. Antibacterial activity of cuminaldehyde on food-borne pathogens, the bioactive component of essential oil from Cuminum cyminum L. collected in Thailand. J Complement Integr Med 2019; 16(4):20180195.
26. Hassanzadeh H, Rahbari M, Galali Y, et al. The garlic extract-loaded nanoemulsion: study of physicochemical, rheological, and antimicrobial properties and its application in mayonnaise. Food Sci Nutr 2023; 11(7):3799-3810.
27. Niaraki NJ, Jamshidi S, Fasaei BN, et al. Antibacterial effects of chitosan-based hydrogels containing Trachyspermum ammi essential oil on pathogens isolated from dogs with otitis externa. BMC Vet Res 2024; 20(1): 130.
28. Barzegar F, Bohlouli S, Fakhri E, et al. Preparation and evaluation of chitosan nanoparticles containing iranian Eschium amoenum extract and its antimicrobial effects on common oral microorganisms. Open Dent J 2023; 17(1):
29. Goy RC, Britto DD, Assis OB. A review of the antimicrobial activity of chitosan. Polímeros 2009; 19:241-7.
30. Jamiri F, Nayeri Fasaei B, Joghataei SM, et al. Synergistic antibacterial activity of chitosan-polyethylene glycol nanocomposites films containing ZIF-8 and doxycycline. BMC Biotechnol 2025; 25(1):19.
31. Farmoudeh A, Shokoohi A, Ebrahimnejad P. Preparation and evaluation of the antibacterial effect of chitosan nanoparticles containing Ginger extract tailored by central composite design. Adv Pharm Bull 2021; 11(4):643-50.
32. Soleymanfallah S, Khoshkhoo Z, Hosseini SE, et al. Preparation, physical properties, and evaluation of antioxidant capacity of aqueous grape extract loaded in chitosan-TPP nanoparticles. Food Sci Nutr 2022; 10(10):3272-81.
33. Mikušová V, Mikuš P. Advances in chitosan-based nanoparticles for drug delivery. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22(17):9652.
34. Duceppe N, Tabrizian M. Advances in using chitosan-based nanoparticles for in vitro and in vivo drug and gene delivery. Expert Opin Drug Delivery 2010; 7(10):1191-1207.
35. Naskar S, Sharma S, Kuotsu K. Chitosan-based nanoparticles: An overview of biomedical applications and its preparation. J Drug Delivery Sci Tech 2019; 49:66-81.
36. Fernández-Romero AM, Maestrelli F, García-Gil S, et al. Preparation, characterization and evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity of epichlorohydrin-β-cyclodextrin/ curcumin binary systems embedded in a pluronic®/hyaluronate hydrogel. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22(24):13566.
37. Utzeri G, Matias PMC, Murtinho D, et al. Cyclodextrin-Based Nanosponges: Overview and Opportunities. Front Chem 2022; 10: 859406.
38. Goyal N, Amar A, Gulati S, et al. Cyclodextrin-based nanosponges as an environmentally sustainable solution for water treatment: a review. ACS Appl Nano Materials 2023; 6(15):13766-91.
39. Osanloo M, Firooziyan S, Abdollahi A, et al. Nanoemulsion and nanogel containing Artemisia dracunculus essential oil; larvicidal effect and antibacterial activity. BMC Res Notes 2022; 15(1):276.
40. Aldawsari MF, Foudah AI, Rawat P, et al. Nanogel-based delivery system for lemongrass essential oil: a promising approach to overcome antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections. Gels 2023; 9(9):741.
41. Malekmohammadi M, Ghanbarzadeh B, Hanifian S, et al. The Gelatin-coated nanostructured lipid carrier (nlc) containing salvia officinalis extract: optimization by combined d-optimal design and its application to improve the quality parameters of beef burger. Foods 2023; 12(20):3737.
42. Azarmi R, Ashjaran A, Nourbakhsh S, et al. Plant extract delivery and antibacterial properties of nano bacterial cellulose in the presence of dendrimer, chitosan, and herbal materials. J Ind Text 2022; 52:15280837221121977.
43. Maes C, Brostaux Y, Bouquillon S, et al. Use of new glycerol-based dendrimers for essential oils encapsulation: optimization of stirring time and rate using a plackett-burman design and a surface response methodology. Foods 2021; 10(2):207.
44. Yu L, Peng J, Han Q, et al. Encapsulation of thyme essential oil in dendritic mesoporous silica nanoparticles: Enhanced antimycotic properties and ROS-mediated inhibition mechanism. Int J Pharm 2025; 669:125057.
45. Liu Y, Li X, Sheng J, et al. Preparation and enhanced antimicrobial activity of thymol immobilized on different silica nanoparticles with application in apple juice. Coatings 2022; 12(5):671.
46. Wu Y, Luo Y, Wang Q. Antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of essential oils encapsulated in zein nanoparticles prepared by liquid–liquid dispersion method. Food Sci Technol 2012; 48(2):283-90.
2. Nasseri M, Golmohammadzadeh S, Arouiee H, et al. Antifungal activity of Zataria multiflora essential oil-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles in-vitro condition. Iran J Basic Med Sci 2016; 19(11):1231-7.
3. Haikal RR, El Salakawy N, Ibrahim A, et al. Synergistic antioxidant and antibacterial effects of a Zn-ascorbate metal–organic framework loaded with marjoram essential oil. Nanoscale Adv 2024; 6(18):4664-71.
4. Fathi F, Ebrahimi SN, Rocha F, et al. Encapsulation of extracts from Middle East medicinal plants and its advantages–a review article. Steroids 2022; 13:15-7.
5. Namdar N, Nayeri Fasaei B, Shariati P, et al. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles co-loaded with lysozyme and vancomycin for synergistic antimicrobial action. Sci Rep 2024; 14(1): 29242.
6. Joghataei S, Nikaein D, Arshadi Nezhad G, et al. Impact of nano-pomegranate seed oil on the expression of TLR2 and TLR4 genes in A549 cells sensitized with Alternaria alternata cellular extract. J Med Bacteriol 2024; 12(4):17-30.
7. Maryam I, Huzaifa U, Hindatu H, et al. Nanoencapsulation of essential oils with enhanced antimicrobial activity: A new way of combating antimicrobial resistance. J Pharm Phytochem 2015; 4(3):165.
8. Khazdair MR, Anaeigoudari A, Hashemzehi M, et al. Neuroprotective potency of some spice herbs, a literature review. J Trad Compl Med 2019; 9(2):98-105.
9. Rijo P, Falé PL, Serralheiro ML, et al. Optimization of medicinal plant extraction methods and their encapsulation through extrusion technology. Measurement 2014; 58: 249-55.
10. Vinceković M, Viskić M, Jurić S, et al. Innovative technologies for encapsulation of Mediterranean plants extracts. Trends Food Sci Tech 2017; 69:1-12.
11. Ebadi P, Azizkhani M. Evaluation of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of Carum copticum L. essential oil encapsulated in electrospun cellulose acetate nanofibers. J Essential Oil Res 2023; 35(6):579-88.
12. Hosseini SM, Tavakolipour H, Mokhtarian M, et al. Co‐encapsulation of Shirazi thyme (Zataria multiflora) essential oil and nisin using caffeic acid grafted chitosan nanogel and the effect of this nanogel as a bio‐preservative in Iranian white cheese. Food Sci Nutr 2024; 12(6):4385-98.
13. Armendáriz-Barragán B, Zafar N, Badri W, et al. Plant extracts: from encapsulation to application. Expert Opin Drug Delivery 2016; 13(8):1165-75.
14. Najafi MN, Arianmehr A, Sani AM. Preparation of barije (Ferula gummosa) essential oil–loaded liposomes and evaluation of physical and antibacterial effect on Escherichia coli O157: H7. J Food Prot 2020; 83(3):511-7.
15. Bahramabadi R, Hakimi H, Saljooqi A, et al. The essential oil of rocket seeds maintains its antibacterial effects after encapsulation in nanoliposomes. J Herbal Med 2024; 47:100924.
16. Bilia AR, Guccione C, Isacchi B, et al. Essential oils loaded in nanosystems: a developing strategy for a successful therapeutic approach. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2014; 2014:651593.
17. Rudzińska M, Grygier A, Knight G, et al. Liposomes as carriers of bioactive compounds in human nutrition. Foods 2024; 13(12):1814.
18. Vakili-Ghartavol M, Arouiee H, Golmohammadzadeh S, et al. Synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antifungal activity of solid lipid nanoparticles containing Mentha piperita L. essential oil. MDRSJRNS 2024; 26(3):667-80.
19. Ghasemiyeh P, Mohammadi-Samani S. Solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers as novel drug delivery systems: applications, advantages and disadvantages. Res Pharm Sci 2018; 13(4):288-303.
20. Karimi N, Ghanbarzadeh B, Hamishehkar H, et al. Antioxidant, antimicrobial and physico-chemical Properties of Turmeric extract-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC). Coll Interf Sci Comm 2018; 22:18-24.
21. Osanloo M, Abdollahi A, Valizadeh A, et al. Antibacterial potential of essential oils of Zataria multiflora and Mentha piperita, micro- and nano-formulated forms. Iran J Microbiol 2020; 12(1):43-51.
22. Rasti F, Ahmadi E, Safari M, et al. Anticancer, antioxidant, and antibacterial effects of nanoemulsion of Origanum majorana essential oil. Iran J Microbiol 2023; 15(4):565-73.
23. Moradi A, Davati N, Emamifar A. Effects of Cuminum cyminum L. essential oil and its nanoemulsion on oxidative stability and microbial growth in mayonnaise during storage. Food Sci Nutr 2023; 11(8):4781-93.
24. Huo YY, Li TT, Yang J, et al. Chemical constituents of the essential oil from Cuminum cyminum L. and its antifungal activity against Panax notoginseng pathogens. Chem Biodivers 2021; 18(12):e2100638.
25. Wongkattiya N, Sanguansermsri P, Fraser IH, et al. Antibacterial activity of cuminaldehyde on food-borne pathogens, the bioactive component of essential oil from Cuminum cyminum L. collected in Thailand. J Complement Integr Med 2019; 16(4):20180195.
26. Hassanzadeh H, Rahbari M, Galali Y, et al. The garlic extract-loaded nanoemulsion: study of physicochemical, rheological, and antimicrobial properties and its application in mayonnaise. Food Sci Nutr 2023; 11(7):3799-3810.
27. Niaraki NJ, Jamshidi S, Fasaei BN, et al. Antibacterial effects of chitosan-based hydrogels containing Trachyspermum ammi essential oil on pathogens isolated from dogs with otitis externa. BMC Vet Res 2024; 20(1): 130.
28. Barzegar F, Bohlouli S, Fakhri E, et al. Preparation and evaluation of chitosan nanoparticles containing iranian Eschium amoenum extract and its antimicrobial effects on common oral microorganisms. Open Dent J 2023; 17(1):
29. Goy RC, Britto DD, Assis OB. A review of the antimicrobial activity of chitosan. Polímeros 2009; 19:241-7.
30. Jamiri F, Nayeri Fasaei B, Joghataei SM, et al. Synergistic antibacterial activity of chitosan-polyethylene glycol nanocomposites films containing ZIF-8 and doxycycline. BMC Biotechnol 2025; 25(1):19.
31. Farmoudeh A, Shokoohi A, Ebrahimnejad P. Preparation and evaluation of the antibacterial effect of chitosan nanoparticles containing Ginger extract tailored by central composite design. Adv Pharm Bull 2021; 11(4):643-50.
32. Soleymanfallah S, Khoshkhoo Z, Hosseini SE, et al. Preparation, physical properties, and evaluation of antioxidant capacity of aqueous grape extract loaded in chitosan-TPP nanoparticles. Food Sci Nutr 2022; 10(10):3272-81.
33. Mikušová V, Mikuš P. Advances in chitosan-based nanoparticles for drug delivery. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22(17):9652.
34. Duceppe N, Tabrizian M. Advances in using chitosan-based nanoparticles for in vitro and in vivo drug and gene delivery. Expert Opin Drug Delivery 2010; 7(10):1191-1207.
35. Naskar S, Sharma S, Kuotsu K. Chitosan-based nanoparticles: An overview of biomedical applications and its preparation. J Drug Delivery Sci Tech 2019; 49:66-81.
36. Fernández-Romero AM, Maestrelli F, García-Gil S, et al. Preparation, characterization and evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity of epichlorohydrin-β-cyclodextrin/ curcumin binary systems embedded in a pluronic®/hyaluronate hydrogel. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22(24):13566.
37. Utzeri G, Matias PMC, Murtinho D, et al. Cyclodextrin-Based Nanosponges: Overview and Opportunities. Front Chem 2022; 10: 859406.
38. Goyal N, Amar A, Gulati S, et al. Cyclodextrin-based nanosponges as an environmentally sustainable solution for water treatment: a review. ACS Appl Nano Materials 2023; 6(15):13766-91.
39. Osanloo M, Firooziyan S, Abdollahi A, et al. Nanoemulsion and nanogel containing Artemisia dracunculus essential oil; larvicidal effect and antibacterial activity. BMC Res Notes 2022; 15(1):276.
40. Aldawsari MF, Foudah AI, Rawat P, et al. Nanogel-based delivery system for lemongrass essential oil: a promising approach to overcome antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections. Gels 2023; 9(9):741.
41. Malekmohammadi M, Ghanbarzadeh B, Hanifian S, et al. The Gelatin-coated nanostructured lipid carrier (nlc) containing salvia officinalis extract: optimization by combined d-optimal design and its application to improve the quality parameters of beef burger. Foods 2023; 12(20):3737.
42. Azarmi R, Ashjaran A, Nourbakhsh S, et al. Plant extract delivery and antibacterial properties of nano bacterial cellulose in the presence of dendrimer, chitosan, and herbal materials. J Ind Text 2022; 52:15280837221121977.
43. Maes C, Brostaux Y, Bouquillon S, et al. Use of new glycerol-based dendrimers for essential oils encapsulation: optimization of stirring time and rate using a plackett-burman design and a surface response methodology. Foods 2021; 10(2):207.
44. Yu L, Peng J, Han Q, et al. Encapsulation of thyme essential oil in dendritic mesoporous silica nanoparticles: Enhanced antimycotic properties and ROS-mediated inhibition mechanism. Int J Pharm 2025; 669:125057.
45. Liu Y, Li X, Sheng J, et al. Preparation and enhanced antimicrobial activity of thymol immobilized on different silica nanoparticles with application in apple juice. Coatings 2022; 12(5):671.
46. Wu Y, Luo Y, Wang Q. Antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of essential oils encapsulated in zein nanoparticles prepared by liquid–liquid dispersion method. Food Sci Technol 2012; 48(2):283-90.
| Issue | Vol 13 No 3 (2025) | |
| Section | Review Articles | |
| Keywords | ||
| Antibacterial Antifungal Medicinal Plant Nano-Encapsulation. | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Jalehrokhnezhad M, Malakootikhah J. Nano-Encapsulation of Medicinal Plant Extracts in Iran (2019–2024): Techniques, Antibacterial and Antifungal Applications. J Med Bacteriol. 2025;13(3):118-130.
